Philosophy 101 Study Guide

* Socrates: Philosopher who trusted in a flat out correct; asked understudies guided inquiries toward make them utilize their explanation, later became Socratic Method. Accused of presenting weird divine beings and debasing the youthful, he ended it all. * Rhetoric: Saying things in a persuading matter * Skepticism: The possibility that nothing can ever be known beyond a shadow of a doubt. * Sophists: A savvy and educated individual, disparaging of customary folklore, dismissed â€Å"fruitless† philosophical speculations.A individual from a school of old Greek expert rationalists who were master in and shown the abilities of talk, contention, and discussion, however were condemned for presumptive thinking. * Socratic Irony: Feign Ignorance, or claim to be more moronic than truly are to uncover the shortcomings of individuals' reasoning * â€Å"One thing just I know, and that will be that I know nothing† * â€Å"He comprehends what great is will do good† * Plato ( 428-347 B. C. Athens, Greece): Student of Socrates. Built up ‘The Academy'. Composed Dialogs. He was a Dualist. * Two sections to a human: Body ; Soul Plato viewed the body and soul as discrete elements * An individual may ache for or have a hunger for something, yet oppose the hankering with resolve. An effectively working soul requires the most noteworthy part, reason, to control the least part, craving, with help from the will. * Plato accepted that however the body bites the dust and crumbles, the spirit keeps on living until the end of time. After the passing of the body, the spirit moves to what Plato called the domain of the unadulterated structures. There, it exists without a body, thinking about the forms.After a period, the spirit is resurrected in another body and comes back to the world. In any case, the resurrected soul holds a diminish memory of the domain of structures and longs for it * Theory of thoughts/shapes: the truth behind the material world, which conta ins the interminable and changeless â€Å"patterns† behind the different wonders, we run over in nature. * Plato accepted that everything substantial in nature streams. There are no substances that don't break up, thus everything is made of an ageless â€Å"mold† or â€Å"form† that is interminable and unchanging. * Eternal: Lasting or existing orever; without end or starting. * Immutable: Unable to be changed * Form (Ideas): A structure is a theoretical property or quality. Take any property of an item; separate it from that question and think about it without anyone else, and you are examining a structure. For instance, in the event that you separate the roundness of a b-ball from its shading, its weight, and so on and think about only roundness without anyone else, you are thinking about the from of roundness. * The structures are otherworldly. This implies they don't exist in reality. A material item, a ball, exists at a specific spot at a specific time.A st ructure, roundness, doesn't exist at wherever or time. * Pure †the structures just epitomize one property. Material articles are tainted; they consolidate various properties, for example, obscurity, circularity, and hardness into one item. * Archetypes †The structures are originals; that is, they are ideal instances of the property that they embody. The structures are the ideal models whereupon every single material article are based. The type of redness, for instance, is red, and every single red article are essentially flawed * Ultimately Real †The structures are the eventually genuine elements, not material objects.All material items are duplicates or pictures of some assortment of structures; their world comes just from the structures. * Causes †The structures are the reasons for all things. * They give the clarification of why anything is how it is * They are the source or cause of the being of all things * Systematically Interconnected †The structures involve a framework driving down from the type of the Good moving from increasingly broad to progressively specific, from increasingly target to more subjective.This methodical structure is reflected in the structure of the argument procedure by which we come to information on the structures. * Realm of Forms (World of Ideas): The world that we see through the brain, utilizing our ideas, is by all accounts lasting and constant. People approach the domain of structures through the brain, through explanation, given Plato's hypothesis of the developments of the human spirit. This gives them access to a perpetual world, safe to the torments and changes of the material world.By isolating ourselves from the material world and our bodies and building up our capacity to fret about the structures, we discover a worth which isn't available to change or breaking down. * Realm of the Illusory (World of the Senses): The world we see through the faculties is by all accounts continually evolving. It appears that all the articles we see with the faculties are basically pictures or encounters in our psyche. They are just abstract purposes of perspectives on the genuine items. For instance, the world shows up profoundly contrastingly to a partially blind individual than it does to us.The objects that we see as shaded, at that point, must not be the genuine articles, however simply our experience of these items that is controlled by my specific emotional perspective and perceptual mechanical assembly. * True Knowledge * He accepted that as aftereffect of the steady change inside the material world we would never truly have genuine information. * Eros: Greek divine force of adoration; child of Aphrodite; regularly demonstrated blindfolded * Rationalism: the conviction that human explanation is the essential wellspring of our insight into the world * Three pieces of the Soul Reason (Intellect) * In the Head * Provide Wisdom * Where our individual/one of a kind abilities lie * If r eason works amazingly (arete) at that point we are shrewd to that degree * If we practice intelligence to the degree then that piece of the spirit is phenomenal * Responsible for affection for learning, vivacious, and enlivened * Passion [Appetite/Desire] * From Greek word â€Å"Pathe† meaning the silly developments of the spirit * In gut * Provides balance If energy works magnificently then we are calm * If we practice moderation to the degree then that piece of the spirit is brilliant * Responsible for Desire * Thymos * Means Spirit/Will * In Heart * Provides Courage * Can assist reason with acing enthusiasm * If we practice fearlessness to the degree then that piece of the spirit is incredible * Responsible for outrage * Views on Women: Plato accepted that ladies had a right, or you may even consider it a task to carry out in the public arena. Their job was to be a noteworthy piece of society, not quite the same as men, yet at the same time play a part.Plato accepted that ladies were important for society to run easily. * Women were not equivalents of men * Women needed quality * Women are normally maternal * In Plato’s time it was inconceivable to see ladies as in excess of a bit of property. * Dualist: a sharp division between the truth of thought and expanded reality. * Aristotle (384-322 B. C; Macedonia, Athens): Pupil of Plato's. Trusted Plato's universe of thoughts didn't exist yet that the everlasting thought was actually an idea the possibility of a pony that we have in the wake of seeing huge numbers of them. Learn know through the faculties. â€Å"20 questions†. Causes * What sort of material it is made of? * Wood * What kind of thing it is? * Table * What made it appear? * How it was manufactured; the undertaking should have been done to make the table * Purpose or Final Cause (Telos): The reason, end, point, or objective of something. The last reason is the reason why a thing exists. * Meant to be a supper table or work area * Views on Women: Viewed them as â€Å"unfinished men†. * Golden Mean: One can't be a lot of a certain something or excessively less, should be adjusted * Empiricism: Derive all information from what the faculties tell us.There are no inborn thoughts and can't demonstrate the presence of God, endlessness or substance * Hellenism: The timeframe and the Greek-ruled culture that won in the three Hellenistic Kingdoms of Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt. The dispersion of Greek Culture all through the Mediterranean world after the success of Alexander the Great. * The Cynics: True satisfaction doesn't originate from outside focal points, similar to control/great wellbeing. When you have genuine bliss, it can't be lost. Their own/others wellbeing shouldn't upset them. * The Stoics * Stoicism was established by a man named Zeno, who lived from 335-263 BC. He used to address not in a study hall however outside, on the yard of an open structure * The word for patio in Greek is STOA, thus individuals called his understudies Stoics * People should attempt to arrive at inward tranquility * Moderate in everything * Be content with what they had. This would prompt a glad life * The best sign of a person's way of thinking was not what an individual said but rather how he carried on * Destructive feelings came about because of mistakes in judgment * Sage: individual of â€Å"moral and scholarly perfection† * Would not experience the ill effects of such feelings The Epicureans: They accepted delight is the best acceptable, however to achieve joy was to live humbly, gain information on the functions of the world, and breaking point to one's wants. * Neo-Platonism: Belief of two shafts on Earth, one end is the jump light called the One (God). Opposite end is outright dimness, no presence, the nonappearance of light. * Syncretism: The joining of various convictions, regularly while merging acts of different ways of thinking. * Mysticism: One with God, converging with hi m. â€Å"I am God. † or â€Å"I am You. † * Two Cultures The Indo-Europeans: Related dialects of Europe, India, and Iran, which are accepted to have dropped from a typical tongue spoken generally in the third thousand years B. C. by a rural people groups starting in SE Europe * The Semites: An individual from any of the people groups who talk or communicated in a Semitic language, remembering for specific the Jews and Arabs-for the most part Middle Easterners, they considered history to be an on going line, world will end on day of atonement * The Middle Ages: Period of European history from the fifth century to the fifteenth century * St. Augustine: Latin-speakin

The Physics of Baseball :: Sport Baseball Physics

Swinging the Bat for Power Numerous individuals may feel that swinging the bat straight through the ball would be sufficient to hit the ball an OK separation off the bat. There's a lot more mechanics engaged with the swinging procedure. Muscle has just a little part to play in the swinging a bat for power. There are two kinds of mechanics included while swinging a bat, Linear and Rotational. Rotational mechanics are the prevailing wellspring of intensity in the swing. Out of the rotational mechanics come the two powers that help produce the speed and intensity of the swing, torque and different originates from the vitality of revolution. Speed from the vitality of turn originates from the way that your hands follow as you swing the bat. The speed produced by the round turn from your hands resembles a ball toward the finish of a string, as long as your hands are moving around then the ball keeps on quickening around. So the bat will likewise move in at a speeding up as long as your hands are following a round w ay as you swing. Any foward development of the hands or body in an orderly fashion won't add to the general bat speed. Torque is another key fixing to a decent force hitter, or even a decent hitter. Torque is the consequence of two powers being applied to an item in inverse ways. For this situation the two powers are being applied from the hands and wrists onto the bat. As you start your swing, rather than moving your hands legitimately at the ball, you need your hands to begin a pivot. The top hand starts to move in reverse while the lead arm drives the finish of the bat towards the ball. The torque invloved is made around the purpose of the bat that lies between your hands. This torque extraordinarily quickens the leader of the bat which will have act with a more prominent power when (or if ) it comes into contact with the ball. A decent player will utilize practically these rotational and torque energies either previously or durning contact with the ball. After contact your body is loose and its residual movement is smooth, this additional movement is brought about by the energy of the bat pulling the arms up and through.Your finish is likewise significant, despite the fact that the ball has just been hit it is perfect that you complete your swing with the goal that you're not rattled by that additional force when you begin to run.

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Dear Prospective 2020s

Dear Prospective 2020s Dear Prospective 2020s, Youve made it this far, and EA decisions are coming out in a couple hours. Yuliya K. 18 made a lovely post compiling a list of distractions for the final stretch. Distractions are great â€" I use them often to reroute my train of thought away from worry or overwhelmedness â€"  but I also find a lot of solace in kind, honest words. So thats what I can offer, because thats what has helped me most this semester. Most of this advice is paraphrased from people that I consider to be mentors, because I think Im still a bit too young and foolish to be justifiably preachy about things Ive learned so far. So heres the most important thing: Youre going to be okay. It may not feel like it right now, if youre a bundle of nerves and it feels like your future is riding on this EA decision. It may not feel like it if you get in, and youre not 100% sure this is the right school for you but you have external pressures to comMIT. It may not feel like it if you get deferred or rejected, and your confidence is shattered and your heart is bruised and you need to pick yourself up and redraw your lifes trajectory for the next couple of months. But its true; you will be okay. Take some time today (and every day) to breathe, to talk to someone you care about about their day or yours. Remember there is life outside a college decision, or a career decision, or any one email. Try to be present in your current life, and try to remember to take care of yourself because you cant keep pushing that into the future. Ive tried, and its not pretty. I cant quite empathize with the feeling of your whole life riding on a decision like this â€"  maybe Im finicky and my dreams shift and evolve too often, or maybe Im more apathetic than the average person in the face of rejection. So for those of you who feel like a future at MIT is the only future where you will be happy: Happiness is largely a choice. Its a choice that can definitely be influenced by aspects of your life, like your friends and your family and where you go to school and what opportunities you have. If you get accepted to MIT, while it will probably give you a boost of pride and endorphins, that moment alone wont sustain a lifetime of happiness. Your happiness will come from a support system or passion projects or excellent mentors that inspire you. While you might be able to find these things at MIT, its also easy to forget to build them. And its equally possible to find these things, and happiness, at other universities. To loosely paraphrase one of my favorite professors parting words to our class, Be very very brave, be very very very kind, and go have lots of adventures. Youll have your bravery â€"  the tenacity that inspired you to apply to MIT in the first place â€" wherever you go. And I believe we should all work towards being kind to other people, whether thats being empathetic or supportive or trying to make small choices that make someones world a better place. Whether MIT is your next adventure or not, you still ultimately have your self and your broadest dreams intact. Lastly, heres a video my friends and I made last year for all MIT applicants. I havent rewatched it recently, so there might be a few dates and times that dont apply to you guys, but the sentiment and words are there. Best of luck, and remember you have so much life ahead of you to do good things. We current MIT students believe in all of you, and are looking forward to making new friends and pseudo-families with whoever happens to come our way.

Cloud vs. Desktop Is Cloud-Based Software Safe

In the past, companies have stored data, downloaded software, and run their programs on physical servers & computers in company offices. As technology has evolved over the last decade, so has the way companies conduct their business. The shift to cloud-based software has been one of the most influential changes. Related: Managing brand consistency in the cloud A recent poll showed that 41% of surveyed businesses plan to spend more on cloud technology. Large companies are hopping on this trend more eagerly than smaller companies: 51% of large and mid-sized companies plan to increase cloud spending, compared to 35% of smaller ones. Cloud computing is internet-based and offers companies a wide variety of benefits and greater flexibility. However, every internet-based technology is susceptible to hacking and has the potential to be compromised. While many companies are rushing to move their systems to the cloud, they should first ask some critical questions regarding the safety and security of their data. "There was a time when most companies were reluctant to move their sensitive data to the cloud because they lacked confidence it would be protected, but perceptions are changing," said Oracle CEO Mark Hurd. "Now, 62% of the companies surveyed by Oracle and KPMG consider the security of cloud-based business applications to be superior to the security of comparable on-premises applications. And 90% report that at least half of their cloud-based data is sensitive." As they operate in an increasingly competitive space, cloud service providers are working to make their software more accessible, affordable, and most importantly, more secure to meet the needs of those businesses. Two-thirds of the 450 companies surveyed by Oracle and KPMG said their operations have been disrupted by a security incident in the past two years, and more than half said they've experienced a breach-related financial impact. Airtight security is of the utmost importance to modern enterprises—but how can that be achieved? Here are a few ways that cloud services like Lucidpress protect their customers against breaches. Automatic updates Cloud-based software limits the need to constantly monitor and maintain on-premises servers. When storing data on remote servers, it's imperative that everything is up-to-date to protect you from the most recent malware and hacking strategies. Companies pay a high price for their inability to stay ahead of hackers. A staggering 85% of security breaches take advantage of system vulnerabilities for which patches were available for more than a year. Rather than hiring people to monitor and patch systems on a daily basis, businesses can outsource this work to cloud service providers, who maintain the security of each system on their end. We see this benefit with software, too. For example, Lucidpress automatically updates every two weeks, so you're always working with the best, most up-to-date version. Users don't have to worry about downloading or installing programs, and there are no compatibility issues. Data storage & backup There are other benefits to housing your documents in the cloud beyond the increased security. One major benefit of cloud storage is its cost. Because cloud-based software can be accessed by any computer with an internet connection, these programs can be much more affordable. Likewise, many cloud services offer the ability to upgrade or downgrade storage volumes as a business scales, empowering companies to budget accordingly and pay only for the space that's needed at any given time. Businesses with significant data storage investments can find themselves unable to take advantage of shifts in the market or respond to competitive pressures, because the necessary capital has already been deployed on hardware. The increased agility offered by cloud computing solutions can give businesses an advantage over their competitors—it's not surprising that "operational agility" consistently ranks as a top driver for cloud adoption. Another benefit of cloud-based data storage is its ease of access for employees. Using the cloud makes accessing brand assets and documents much easier, so employees can access their work no matter where they are. Employees gain greater flexibility and can continue operating as long as they have internet access. Finally, the ability to recover data after a disaster is far easier and cheaper when your data is stored in the cloud. IT disasters come in many sizes when dealing with on-premises systems. They can range from the loss of a single-but-important document to the loss of an entire database. The recovery of corporate data could take herculean efforts, equaling or exceeding the efforts needed to reconstruct a company's hardware infrastructure. At Lucidpress: We store every version of your projects and automatically save your changes. Your documents are backed up hourly to multiple data centers—no more fretting about misplaced files or hard drive failures. Losing any amount of data causes stress and panic, regardless of how large the disaster. Companies of all sizes need to have solid recovery protocols in place. An all-encompassing disaster recovery plan is necessary for the survival of any business, large or small, and the cloud turns that into a far easier proposition. Data encryption With sensitive data and information constantly being transferred from employees to the cloud, each piece must be secured on a minute level. Many cloud-based software providers, including Lucidpress, use multiple layers of data encryption to safeguard user information. Additionally, encryption keys are commonly rotated to further protect important company information and files. At Lucidpress: Your data is safe with us. All data is transferred to our servers using Secure Socket Layer (SSL) with AES-256 bit encryption. We securely store and frequently rotate encryption keys to further increase site security. Companies want to choose the software that best fits their business for a multitude of reasons. Using cloud-based computing systems can help your business run more efficiently and make it more convenient to do what you want, where you want, and without being tethered to your office computer. While it's true that cloud-based systems are not 100% secure, there is simply no internet-rooted network—cloud-based or not—that is absolutely hacker-proof. By following security best practices, you can have peace of mind in knowing that you can safely enjoy the benefits of cloud-based computing. As the shift to cloud platforms continues, companies will search for the best option to ensure that their data is in safe hands, and service providers will strive to provide just that. Learn more about how Lucidpress acts as a safe & secure brand portal for your business.

Citizen Kane Essay - 1194 Words

Citizen Kane Citizen Kane is often called the greatest film ever made. Its use of film techniques often taken for granted nowadays were completely new and had not been done before. Simple things like ceilings on the sets and realistic scenes such as the newsreel, which would not stand out in a modern film, were combined to make a film full of innovative techniques. The director, Orson Welles, developed the use of deep focus to make the flat cinema screen almost become three dimensional, which added a realism that had not been explored before. Right from the start, a viewer can see the innovation displayed by Welles. The opening scene, one of the most famous in the entire film, begins with the†¦show more content†¦This happens just as Kane dies, so it is both a signal that he has passed away, and a metaphor of the light of life going out. The opening scene also contains the first instance of something being viewed through a piece of glass and of just the reflection of what is going on being seen, in this case, both at once. These techniques make the audience unsure of what they are seeing and are used at other times throughout the film. Realism is a major reason why Citizen Kane stands out from other films of the time. However, it is the way realism and theatrical effects are mixed together that truly marks it out as one of the greatest films ever made. Ceilings on the set allowed for scenes lit by normal lightbulbs, giving the appearance of real rooms, but the theatrical spotlights through the windows in the newsreel showing room and the library highlight parts of the scenery, leaving others in shadow. The people working on Citizen Kane went to great lengths to get authentic-looking film for the newsreel. It was degraded using sand to give a grainy look as opposed to the smooth film used for the main picture. Also in the newsreel, the jerky cuts, when Kane spills cement on his coat then is shown clean, give a more genuine feel to the footage. The newsreel scene can also be viewed as a parody of an actual news programme of the time, March of Time. ThisShow MoreRelatedCitizen Kane1211 Words   |  5 PagesWhen I first saw this clip of Citizen Kane (Orson Welles, 1941) my first instinct was that it was comic relief. The extremely frustrated director, Jedediah trying so hard not to fall asleep and of course Bernstein reclining back in his seat more interested in playing with the playbill then watching Susan on stage. While this scene may be rather humorous a lot about both Susan and Kane is revealed through emotions and actions of the two. As the clip progresses it begins to becom e less and less humorousRead More Citizen Kane Essay836 Words   |  4 Pages nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Orson Welles’ cinematic classic, Citizen Kane, is a film that centers on a group of reporter’s investigation into the meaning of Charles Foster Kane’s last word, â€Å"Rosebud.† Through their investigation of his last words, the team of reporters, is presented with an almost, but not quite, complete picture of â€Å"Citizen† Kane’s life. By assuming that the man’s last word was as grandiose as his life, the reporters miss out on the bigger, more holistic picture, which is CharlesRead MoreCitizen Kane Analysis2693 Words   |  11 PagesFilm History Research Citizen Kane Film Essay Orson Welles Citizen Kane Success the first time around is very uncommon. Orson Welless first feature film richly realizes the full potential of excellent craftsmanship. Citizen Kane is almost indisputably the greatest achievement in the history of filming. In 1941, this film was considered by many as the best film ever made. This film is about the enormous conflict between two twentieth-century iconsRead More Citizen Kane Essay981 Words   |  4 Pages The film Citizen Kane, directed by Orson Welles, is a great example of how a man can be corrupted by wealth. Through the characters in the film we can observe how Charles Foster Kane, an idealistic man with principles, can be changed and misguided by wealth and what accompanies wealth. The film takes places during the late 19th century and early 20th century, a time in American history when the world is changing and wealth is a great power to change it with. Through the story telling of Kane’s lifeRead MoreFilm Analysis Of Citizen Kane1299 Words   |   6 PagesCitizen Kane incorporates a well-rounded variety of shots and angles that make the film more entertaining. This movie is significant because the American people will always be able to relate to it. There will always be a rich politician who wants to change things for the better. Sometimes, scandal and broken promises ensue. The American people will always want someone that they can trust to make their lives better. It is interesting to note that this film combines multiple genres, giving it a factorRead MoreRosebud in Citizen Kane Essay1067 Words   |  5 PagesRosebud in Citizen Kane Rosebud is sled, Kanes sled when he was a boy. Rosebud is the foundation of the film of citizen Kane. Rosebud is also Kanes last words. He was a very important man, known globally. Rosebud is the word everyone wants to understand the meaning of, so there is a hunt to find the meaning of the word. This sets the story for the film. Rosebud is a symbol of Kane, in that Rosebud represents his loss of the ability to love and how to love. The filmRead MoreEssay Citizen Kane1284 Words   |  6 Pages Citizen Kane After watching the movie â€Å"Citizen Kane† I realized why this movie was named one of the best films ever. Yellow journalism was in an era from the 1880 to the 1900 and it featured flashy journalism of that time, which made editors write about invented stories. Which went to big headlines on subjects that weren’t true. The two big writers of that time were William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer. During the film Kane is depicted as a yellow journalism at different times. One exampleRead MoreOrson Welles And Citizen Kane2180 Words   |  9 Pagesin half between his polar personalities. Charles Foster Kane has recently died and the predicament of interpreting his life and its meaning is left upon a single reporter. â€Å"†¦A group of prominent films critics were asked to list the greatest directors and the greatest films, Orson Welles and Citizen Kane both came in first (Carringer 32).† Orson Welles’ produces, co-wrote, directed, and starred in the great American classic film, Citizen Kane, at the age of 26. Throughout this entire film, the audienceRead MoreCitizen Kane Is A Quarry For Filmmakers1572 Words   |  7 Pages As esteemed film director William Friedkin once said; Citizen Kane is a quarry for filmmakers. It is undeniable that Citizen Kane is the epitome of the great American film. It was initially released in 1941 and was met with great criticism . However, since its release many years ago it is evident that the film ma de advancements in cinema techniques which were well ahead of its time . The foremost reason Citizen Kane is considered one of the great American films ever created is due to the innovativeRead MoreFilm Analysis Of Citizen Kane1143 Words   |  5 PagesCitizen Kane was rife with innovations in cinematic technique and introduced many new and unique aspects of mise-en-scà ¨nà © that would thrive in films to come. Orson Welles was a young visionary whose career had been limited to stage production and radio until his first film, Citizen Kane. Uniquely, as someone new to the film industry, he retained full creative control of his very first project, co-writing, producing, directing, and starring as Kane himself. This unfounded level of trust for a newcomer

Plasma Definition in Chemistry and Physics

Plasma is a state of matter where the gas phase is energized until atomic electrons are no longer associated with any particular atomic nucleus. Plasmas are made up of positively charged ions and unbound electrons. Plasma may be produced by either heating a gas until it is ionized or by subjecting it to a strong electromagnetic field. The term plasma comes from a Greek word that means jelly or moldable material. The word was introduced in the 1920s by chemist Irving Langmuir. Plasma is considered one of the four fundamental states of matter, along with solids, liquids, and gases. While the other three states of matter are commonly encountered in daily life, plasma is relatively rare. Examples of Plasma The plasma ball toy is a typical example of plasma and how it behaves. Plasma is also found in neon lights, plasma displays, arc welding torches, and Tesla coils. Natural examples of plasma include lightning the aurora, the ionosphere, St. Elmos fire, and electrical sparks. While not often seen on Earth, plasma is the most abundant form of matter in the universe (excluding perhaps dark matter). The stars, interior of the Sun, solar wind, and solar corona consist of fully ionized plasma. The interstellar medium and intergalactic medium also contain plasma. Properties of Plasma In a sense, plasma is like a gas in that it assumes the shape and volume of its container. However, plasma isnt as free as gas because its particles are electrically charged. Opposite charges attract each other, often causing plasma to maintain a general shape or flow. The charged particles also mean plasma may be shaped or contained by electrical and magnetic fields. Plasma is generally at a much lower pressure than a gas. Types of Plasma Plasma is the result of the ionization of atoms. Because its possible for either all or a portion of atoms to be ionized, there are different degrees of ionization. The level of ionization is mainly controlled by temperature, where increasing the temperature increases the degree of ionization. Matter in which only 1% of the particles are ionized can show characteristics of plasma, yet not be plasma. Plasma may be categorized as hot or completely ionized if nearly all the particles are ionized, or cold or incompletely ionized if a small fraction of molecules is ionized. Note the temperature of cold plasma may still be incredibly hot (thousands of degrees Celsius)! Another way to categorize plasma is as thermal or nonthermal. In thermal plasma, the electrons and heavier particles are in thermal equilibrium or at the same temperature. In nonthermal plasma, the electrons are at a much higher temperature than the ions and neutral particles (which may be at room temperature). Discovery of Plasma The first scientific description of plasma was made by Sir William Crookes in 1879, in reference to what he called radiant matter in a Crookes cathode ray tube. British physicist Sir J.J. Thomsons experiments with a cathode ray tube led him to propose an atomic model in which atoms consisted of positively (protons) and negatively charged subatomic particles. In 1928, Langmuir gave a name to the form of matter.